Central Place Theory

About seventy years have now passed since Walter Christaller established the foundations of Central Place Theory in his book entitled Die zentralen Orte in Süddeutschland. The Central Place Theory has played an important role in the explanation of urban system. It attempts to explain the size, number, and spatial distribution of settlement in the belief that some ordering principles govern the distribution.

The Central Place Theory posits the following: (i) that the basic function of a city is to be a central place which provides goods and services for a surrounding tributary area; (ii) that the centrality of a city is a summary measure of the degree to which it is such a service center; (iii)that higher order places offer more goods, have more establishments and business types, larger populations, tributary areas and tributary populations, do greater volumes of business, and are more widely spaced than lower order places; (iv) that low order places provide only low order goods to low order tributary areas; (v) that central places fall into a hierarchy comprising discrete groups of centers; and (vi) that the hierarchy may be organized according to marketing, traffic, and separation principles (Berry and Pred, 1965: 3).

The central place is specialized in selling various goods and services. As such, the city, which serves as a central place, has a number of smaller towns at an equal distance away from it, and is located at the center of minimum aggregate travel of its tributary area.

The more central the place is, the higher is its “order”. High order centers (e.g., universities) provide highly specialized goods and services while low order ones (grocery stores) offer simple basic goods and services, which require frequent purchasing with little consumer travel.

High order centers perform all the functions of low order centers plus a group of central functions that differentiates them and sets them above the lower order. This implies that there are low order goods and services in high order centers but not high order goods and services in low order centers. A result is a “nesting” pattern of lower order trade areas within the trade area of higher order centers, plus a hierarchy of routes joining the centers.
Based on the Central Place Theory, the larger the settlements, the lesser their number; the bigger a settlement, the farther away a similar size settlement is; the larger the settlement, the higher the order of its services; and the range (or the maximum travel distance of a consumer) increases as the population increases.

The conurbation as shown in the figure is the largest settlement, so has the largest amount of services and therefore there are less of them. The towns, on the other hand, have much less services and there are more of them.

The Central Place Theory assumes that all areas have an isotropic surface, an evenly distributed population and resources, and similar purchasing power of consumers. It points out that to prevent spheres of influence to overlap or have gaps, the best shape is a hexagon. The breaking point is where the consumer is equidistant from two/more similar services.

References:

Barlowe, Raleigh. Land Resource Economics: The Political Economy of Rural and Urban Resource Use. (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1958).

Berry, Brian and Allen Pred. Central Place Studies. (USA: Regional Science Research Institute, 1965).

mama.instate.edu

www.revision.notes.co.uk

www.personal umich.edu

von Thunen’s Theory

A German landowner and economist, Johann Heinrich von Thunen developed a model which attempts to analyze the relationship between differences in spatial location and land utilization patterns. The von Thunen’s Model illustrates the effects of location relative to market, and transportation facilities and costs, on land utilization practices.

According to von Thunen, transportation costs include not only the transfer of produce to market, but also the time, effort, and inconvenience associated with moving workers and supplies to and from various production sites. With this, he argued that the first zone would be used for garden plots and other intensive uses which call for considerable care and travel on the part of the villagers. The second and third zones were devoted to uses involving heavy, bulky, and hard-to-transport commodities while those uses involving more easily transported products were located at even greater distances from the city.

Nowadays, some of the von Thunen’s assumptions do not hold true due to modern transportation facilities. But it is still advantageous to locate a production area near the market wherein transportation costs can be reduced at the minimum level or better yet, none at all.

References:

Barlowe, Raleigh. Land Resource Economics: The Political Economy of Rural and Urban Resource Use. (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1958).

Berry, Brian and Allen Pred. Central Place Studies. (USA: Regional Science Research Institute, 1965).

mama.instate.edu

www.revision.notes.co.uk

www.personal umich.edu

On Non-motorized Transport

Non-motorized transport is indispensable, particularly in an era of economic and environmental crises. The use of non-motorized means of transportation such as walking and cycling provides a lot of socio-economic and environmental benefits, especially in developing countries such as the Philippines. It creates health consciousness among people, enhances physical fitness, offers affordable mobility, reduces traffic congestion, and does not contribute to further environmental pollution, among others.

However, as in any other Asian cities, increasing trends of population, gross domestic product, and level of motorization seem to threaten the current status of non-motorized transport in Metro Manila. Loss of street space for safe, non-motorized vehicle use and changes in urban geography have been evidenced as consequences of transportation plans and policies that encourage motorization. Moreover, the declining use of non-motorized transport has brought about negative effects such as air pollution, inefficient energy use, and unemployment and poor mobility of low-income people.

To address these, the need to formulate plans which put priority on the movement of goods and persons, the development of required regulatory frameworks, and the institutional and organizational capacity to implement such sustainable plans that integrate the concerns of non-motorized transport facilities, becomes urgent. Some cities in Metro Manila, including Makati, Manila and Marikina have already started improving non-motorized transport facilities. To what extent these efforts have contributed to the overall sustainability of urban transport, at least in Metro Manila, is yet to be determined. Collective efforts of other cities in terms of mainstreaming non-motorized transport facilities planning have to be established.

Population Growth and Human Capital

The relationship of population growth and human capital can be both optimistic and pessimistic. Optimistically, it can be said that population growth in a given area would mean more human capital, provided that such human capital is productive. In other words, the growing population should add up to the labor force. The challenge therefore is how to ensure that the growing population effectively contributes to the development of a certain area, or of the nation as a whole. Said challenge can be addressed primarily with efforts and investments geared toward quality health and nutrition, as well as education and other essential services.

Pessimistically, failure of the government or the public at large to address such challenge would entail problems of unemployment and declining quality of human resources. Without corresponding inputs or investments to make the growing population economically independent and productive, the result would be a weak human capital, mainly affecting individual and nationwide economic status.

Population Growth and the Environment

Population growth has an effect on the environment, and vice versa. Such effects can be viewed in both positive and negative ways. On the positive side, increase in population means increase in the number of stewards looking after the environment. Again, this is more of an ideal situation rather than real.

The real picture is more inclined to the negative side. Population growth is viewed as one of the factors that cause environmental degradation. The demands of the growing population could lead to mismanagement of natural resources. More people demand more resources, and apparently, generate more waste. Accordingly, when natural resources are strained, the integrity of the environment is likewise affected. In such situations, environmental problems, such as pollution, may crop up, resulting into other interrelated problems such as those relating to health and sanitation, which eventually hinder development. As in the case of natural resources, the decline in the environment would have bearing on the quantity and quality of the population.

Population Growth and Natural Resources

Population growth and natural resources are interrelated. The former influences the quantity or availability of the latter. This relationship may be exemplified in two ways. First is in the ability of the growing population to manage and maintain natural resources. As the population grows, then, there would be a great number of people taking care of these natural resources. However, this scenario is one that is ideal.

Second is in the fact that the population depends largely on natural resources, such as freshwaters, croplands, fisheries, and forests, to sustain life. With this, the requirements for these natural resources accelerate as the population escalates. In other words, rapid population growth implies the need to produce more goods and services to accommodate the larger population. Consequently, more natural resources, serving as production inputs are needed to increase production of goods and services needed by the population.

It must be noted that the availability of natural resources also dictates population growth, among other factors. While natural resources have the so-called regenerative capacity, this, however, does not guarantee perpetual support to life. Certainly, mismanagement of natural resources of the growing population could damage said capacity, which in turn, could ultimately lead to decline of both natural resources and the population. As natural resources depletion gets worse, population growth may have the tendency to slow down despite the availability of alternatives to support life.

Major Planning Constraints in Developing Countries

Planning in developing countries such as the Philippines is constrained by some structural, institutional, political, and attitudinal problems. For instance, some local government units in the Philippines, e.g., those 6th class in terms of income, do not or may not have the necessary technical expertise and financial resources to formulate plans, and implement these for the betterment of their locality. This may be the case of LGUs which are not that resourceful and innovative.

Another reason why planning is somewhat difficult in developing countries such as the Philippines is that, as observed, from the national down to the local level, governance is not that good in general. The Philippines for instance is noted for being dominated by corrupt officials with personal vested interests. The goals of planning to ensure that the general welfare of the people is upheld, is most of the time, not achieved because of “inefficient” governance. Nonetheless, there are exceptions to this, where good governance is practiced, where the government works hand in hand with the civil society and the business community to provide better quality of life of the people.

Theory in Planning

Theory is important in planning because it provides a framework for understanding planning phenomena. It provides description and explanation as well as guides the development of strategies in order to address problems in actuality. The use of theory in planning also gives the planner the authority and the legitimacy of providing different alternatives or courses of action without being accused of misconduct.

This may be exemplified, for instance, in the comprehensive-rational model which is so far considered the best theoretical framework for the study of planning. The said model allows the planner to clarify goals, analyze the past and existing situation, develop strategies or alternatives, choose the best alternative, implement it and monitor the results. The process is scientific in nature. As the term implies, it is comprehensive because it covers all aspects such as social, economic, environmental, physical and institutional. The model requires adequate information on said aspects. As such, it may provide a clearer picture of what is happening in a locality for instance. Said information may be useful, if properly organized, in coming up with appropriate strategies to solve a wide range of issues. Such practice also enhances the technical expertise of the planner, as well as its legitimacy. The model also gives the planner, particularly if he/she is just a beginner in the field, with a sense of identity.

However, the comprehensive-rational approach is not without disadvantages. Critics of the model say that some problems faced by the society do not require comprehensive study. Others say that the model is too idealistic because in reality, comprehensiveness is difficult to achieve if not impossible. Besides, since the model necessarily involves several sectors, these sectors may have “conflicting” priorities which are difficult to consolidate.

Planning Defined

Different people define planning in different ways. Common among these definitions of planning is that it is a deliberate and organized activity intended to achieve desired results based on the past and present conditions. Planning, therefore, is forethought. It is future-oriented.

Ernest Alexander provided a summary of different definitions given by various authors and professionals in the planning field… “planning is a deliberate social or organizational activity of developing optimal strategy of future actions to achieve desired results of solving novel problems, in complex context, and attend to commit resources and act as necessary to implement the chosen strategy”. The definition provided by Alexander stresses that planning is directed towards the future and it may be a response to certain dissatisfaction with the status quo.

Planning is actually an integral part of any social action. In more practical terms, planning is basically an activity that aims to solve societal problems in general, such as pollution, traffic congestion, illegal settlement, and garbage. Planning, of course, brings benefits to the society. It provides a basis for resource allocation, particularly when resources are limited and finite. It also serves as a tool to promote social equity, such that, by involving the people in the planning process – from the formulation of plan up to the implementation and evaluation – their voices and concerns are heard and are taken into consideration, particularly the marginalized sectors of the society.

Planning promotes scientific efficiency. The modern day society, for instance, has been characterized by technological innovations which make, or which are intended to make life easier. These are not totally beneficial but somehow these provide ease and comfort to people.

Planning enhances civic beauty. As experienced in the past, the growing population had created complex problems in the cities which caused the cities to “deteriorate”. To bring back the “beauty” of the cities, planning was the answer.

On Comprehensive Planning: A Personal Viewpoint

After my studies at the School of Urban and Regional Planning, I envision myself to be involved in comprehensive planning. With a background in public administration and urban and regional planning, as well as work experience in a national government agency providing supervision to local government units in the country, I believe I can aptly apply my knowledge and skills in the said kind of planning.

I see comprehensive planning as both interesting and challenging. Based on a rational and systematic approach, this kind of planning would allow me to take part in the generation of a lot of data and information which may be useful for a variety of requirements. Since it covers a wide range of aspects relating to people and the environment, whether natural or man-made, I would be able to learn more (for instance, not just about a particular sector, but also about other interrelated sectors) and understand further the dynamics in planning as I apply the different tools and methods, particularly in analyzing planning-related problems, evaluating alternatives against planning goals and relating these to a set of collective values of the community, and providing recommendations to multiple issues. With these, it would be possible for me to gain identity in the said field, as well as a sort of social recognition and prestige.

On the other hand, comprehensive planning poses challenges as well as criticisms. For one, since it involves different stakeholders, including the community in general, conflicting interests may sometimes be unavoidable. As a comprehensive planner, I must be able to fully develop my negotiation skills so that relatively good plans (those that would ultimately advance the general welfare and not the interest of only few) will get implemented. Another challenge would be to start planning for a particular area where pertinent data and information are not available. The solution to such situation is not impossible though. Again, as a comprehensive planner, I must be able to maximize the data gathering methods so that available resources will not be wasted.

Some critics would say that a number of planning problems do not require comprehensive technical solutions. In response to this, I would like to be known as a flexible comprehensive planner. As such, I must be able to provide recommendations to problems, whether comprehensive or otherwise, based on careful analysis. Other critics would comment that comprehensive planning has little impact. I would like to stress that the impact of planning does not come from the planner alone, but from various stakeholders. In other words, comprehensive planning would succeed in situations where different stakeholders arrive at a consensus and consolidate their efforts to implement the good plan in the most efficient and effective manner.

Despite the challenges and criticisms linked to comprehensive planning, I would still prefer to be involved in this type of planning. This, however, does not stop me from getting involved in activities which resemble those in other types of planning. As previously mentioned, I would like to be known for being a flexible comprehensive planner.

Fixed Location Factor

Land is fixed in location and immobile. This fixed location attribute influences various utilization of land. According to Barlowe, this has a bearing on human decisions or preferences concerning the value and use-capacity of various places; land-utilization practices; private ownership, land values, uses, and ownership conditions to the local environment; and legal description of properties (1958).

On human decisions or preferences
Rational thinking and choices dictate that some portions of the earth’s surface are more advantageous than the others. These preferred areas gain economic significance and value when used by an individual or group of individuals to meet certain needs and demands. For example, a businessman would put up a business in a metropolis where he might expect the largest flow of customers and trade and thus the biggest yield. In such respect, said area has a locational advantage. An economic location is thus established by combining human choice and physical location. As Barlowe has explained:

The concept of economic location assumes that some areas enjoy locational advantages over the others. This advantage often involves savings in transportation costs and time; and it stems partly from the fact that the law of diminishing returns makes it both physically impossible and economically impracticable for man to produce all his market goods at points adjacent to a central market. Location advantages also result from the higher productivity and lower production costs associated with particular sites (1958:32).

Moreover, since most sites can accommodate only one use at a time, the need to link the fixed geographic or spatial relationships that separate various areas arises. This can be resolved by providing transportation means. In this respect, the area that has locational advantage is the one where there are savings in transportation costs and time. For instance, an individual would reside in a place near the office where he goes to work or near the shopping center where he buys his basic necessities. Such decisions may be based on his savings in transportation costs and time, whichever activity he values most.

On land-utilization practices
Relative to the above, land location prescribes the use of land. Different uses of land can be observed at varying distance from the market. Time, effort, and convenience are relevant factors that are considered in determining the use of a particular tract of land. As to the said factors for instance, maximum savings can be realized if heavy and bulky products are manufactured near the market.

On ownership and community ties
Because of fixed location factor, standardization of properties is impossible with parcels of land. This is because tracts of land “differ in location and have different neighbors and different spatial relationships with respect to other properties and facilities” (Barlowe, 1958: 36).

On legal description of properties
The fixed location factor helps in describing the location of various land holdings, which in turn facilitates the legal description of land titles.

Reference:
Barlowe, Raleigh. Land Resource Economics: The Political Economy of Rural and Urban Resource Use. (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1958).

Challenges, Opportunities, and Lessons Learned in the Practice of EnP Profession

Challenges
Capacity (education, work experience)
Limited, particularly for young EnPs
More general/less specific
Planning environment (ideal vs. actual)
Resources (people, funds, etc.)
Institutions/structures, consultative mechanisms, tools, etc.

Opportunities
Trainings/learning opportunities (e.g., specialized seminars/workshops, travels, information technology)
Partnerships/advocacies (with the government, private sector, civil society, international community, academe, etc.)

Lessons Learned So Far
Focus (field/s of expertise)
Build up and maintain a planning database
Be flexible/customize without sacrificing quality